Perspective
Open Access
From Fog-Enabled IoT to Cognitive Internet of Vehicles: A Perspective on Mutable–Immutable Blockchain Architectures
1
Department of Engineering, University of Messina, 98166 Messina, Italy
* Corresponding Author:
Marco Scarpa,
[email protected]
Volume 1, Issue 1
2026
Received: 22 December 2025
Accepted: 17 March 2026
Published: 25 March 2026
Article Information
Abstract
Fog-enabled Internet of Things (IoT-Fog) architectures and the Cognitive Internet of Vehicles (Cognitive IOV) are becoming key enablers for next-generation intelligent transport systems. At the same time, Blockchain is used to support integrity, transparency, and trust in distributed vehicular services. In this perspective article, we link these domains by discussing a hybrid Mutable-Immutable Blockchain Architecture in which mutable ledgers at the fog layer are combined with an immutable ledger in the cloud. We first outline an analytical model for Cognitive IOV over IoT-Fog, and then extend it to include Blockchain-related delays, throughput, and tamper resistance in the hybrid architecture. The main contribution is an analytical view of how key parameters, such as the fraction of transactions sent to the Blockchain or anchored in the immutable layer, influence the trade-off between latency, flexibility, and security in Cognitive IOV services.
Graphical Abstract
Keywords
blockchain
IoT-Fog networks
cognitive internet of vehicles (IoV), mutability
latency-aware architecture
Data Availability Statement
Not applicable.
Funding
This work was partially funded by European Union - Next generation EU - PNRR - Missione 4, Componente 2, Investimento 1.1 - Bando PRIN 2022 PNRR - Decreto Direttoriale n. 1409 del 14-09-2022 - Progetto PaB-PIF, CUP J53D2301493, Project ID. P20227W8ZC.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
AI Use Statement
The authors declare that no generative AI was used in the preparation of this manuscript.
Ethical Approval and Consent to Participate
Not applicable.
References
- Javanmardi, S., Scarpa, M., Shojafar, M., Distefano, S., & Merlino, G. (2025). Mutable Blockchains in IoT-Driven Sustainable Urban Planning: Challenges, and Analytical Modeling. In 2025 IEEE International Conference on Smart Computing (SMARTCOMP) (pp. 408–413). IEEE.
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Cite This Article
APA Style
Javanmardi, S., & Scarpa, M. (2026). From Fog-Enabled IoT to Cognitive Internet of Vehicles: A Perspective on Mutable–Immutable Blockchain Architectures. Journal of Systems Scalability, 1(1), 29–34. https://doi.org/10.62762/JSS.2025.861548
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TY - JOUR AU - Javanmardi, Saeed AU - Scarpa, Marco PY - 2026 DA - 2026/03/25 TI - From Fog-Enabled IoT to Cognitive Internet of Vehicles: A Perspective on Mutable–Immutable Blockchain Architectures JO - Journal of Systems Scalability T2 - Journal of Systems Scalability JF - Journal of Systems Scalability VL - 1 IS - 1 SP - 29 EP - 34 DO - 10.62762/JSS.2025.861548 UR - https://www.icck.org/article/abs/JSS.2025.861548 KW - blockchain KW - IoT-Fog networks KW - cognitive internet of vehicles (IoV), mutability KW - latency-aware architecture AB - Fog-enabled Internet of Things (IoT-Fog) architectures and the Cognitive Internet of Vehicles (Cognitive IOV) are becoming key enablers for next-generation intelligent transport systems. At the same time, Blockchain is used to support integrity, transparency, and trust in distributed vehicular services. In this perspective article, we link these domains by discussing a hybrid Mutable-Immutable Blockchain Architecture in which mutable ledgers at the fog layer are combined with an immutable ledger in the cloud. We first outline an analytical model for Cognitive IOV over IoT-Fog, and then extend it to include Blockchain-related delays, throughput, and tamper resistance in the hybrid architecture. The main contribution is an analytical view of how key parameters, such as the fraction of transactions sent to the Blockchain or anchored in the immutable layer, influence the trade-off between latency, flexibility, and security in Cognitive IOV services. SN - 3142-7855 PB - Institute of Central Computation and Knowledge LA - English ER -
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@article{Javanmardi2026From,
author = {Saeed Javanmardi and Marco Scarpa},
title = {From Fog-Enabled IoT to Cognitive Internet of Vehicles: A Perspective on Mutable–Immutable Blockchain Architectures},
journal = {Journal of Systems Scalability},
year = {2026},
volume = {1},
number = {1},
pages = {29-34},
doi = {10.62762/JSS.2025.861548},
url = {https://www.icck.org/article/abs/JSS.2025.861548},
abstract = {Fog-enabled Internet of Things (IoT-Fog) architectures and the Cognitive Internet of Vehicles (Cognitive IOV) are becoming key enablers for next-generation intelligent transport systems. At the same time, Blockchain is used to support integrity, transparency, and trust in distributed vehicular services. In this perspective article, we link these domains by discussing a hybrid Mutable-Immutable Blockchain Architecture in which mutable ledgers at the fog layer are combined with an immutable ledger in the cloud. We first outline an analytical model for Cognitive IOV over IoT-Fog, and then extend it to include Blockchain-related delays, throughput, and tamper resistance in the hybrid architecture. The main contribution is an analytical view of how key parameters, such as the fraction of transactions sent to the Blockchain or anchored in the immutable layer, influence the trade-off between latency, flexibility, and security in Cognitive IOV services.},
keywords = {blockchain, IoT-Fog networks, cognitive internet of vehicles (IoV), mutability, latency-aware architecture},
issn = {3142-7855},
publisher = {Institute of Central Computation and Knowledge}
}
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Copyright © 2026 by the Author(s). Published by Institute of Central Computation and Knowledge. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made.
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